Vicarious substitution in the literary work of Shusaku Endō: On fools, animals, objects and doubles

This research systematically examines the theme of vicarious substitution in Shūsaku Endō’s literary work. It aims at enriching the traditional concepts of vicarious substitution. This study results in the following typology of vicarious substituion in Endo's literature: Christ-figures, including holy fools, animals that seem to die instead of persons, objects, such as a cross or a fumie and doppelgangers. It is argued that the autobiographical, confessional way of writing as found in Endō’s writing genre of shishōsetsu itself could be considered as a way of meeting one’s double. Therefore, writing can be regarded as a kind of vicarious substitution. Two aspects of vicarious substitution are distinguished: the consoling and the challenging function. In Endō’s historical novels objects, such as a fumie, a portrait, or a statue, referred to Christ. With the help of D. Winnicott’s theory on transitional objects, these objects could be recognized as fulfilling the function of a vicarious substitute. Their function could be described as co-suffering. The co-suffering vicarious substitution in these novels was also embodied in persons who served as a dōhansha, a loyal companion. This research examines Endō’s animal stories, focussing on narratives in which animals seem to die in place of a person. In the examined animal stories, the consoling aspect of vicarious substitution was embodied by the dogs, whereas the challenging aspect came to the fore in the laughter of the birds. An intrafigural analysis of the animal stories cast light on the role of confession and shame and guilt, and revealed vicarious substitution as a process. It is argued that an original pattern can be detected in the functioning of vicarious substitution in Endō’s literary work. This pattern is examined, emphasizing its religious embedding. Next, the threatening aspect of vicarious substitution is examined. An intra-figural analysis shows how the doppelgänger in Endō’s work can be considered a vicarious substitute. Since the main character in the analysed novel Scandal is an author who seems to be Endō’s double, authorship was argued to be a form of vicarious substitution.