The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis

Noreen Z Siddiqui; Joreintje D Mackenbach; Maria G M Pinho; Hans Bosma; Henrike Galenkamp; Martijn Huisman; Annemarie Koster; Jeroen Lakerveld; Brenda W J H Penninx; H Susan J Picavet; Miranda T Schram; Erik J Timmermans; W Monique Verschuren; Alfred Wagtendonk; Femke Rutters; Joline W J Beulens

doi:10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255

The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis

Noreen Z Siddiqui^*
, Joreintje D Mackenbach
, Maria G M Pinho
, Hans Bosma
, Henrike Galenkamp
, Martijn Huisman
, Annemarie Koster
, Jeroen Lakerveld
, Brenda W J H Penninx
, H Susan J Picavet
, Miranda T Schram
, Erik J Timmermans
, W Monique Verschuren
, Alfred Wagtendonk
, Femke Rutters
, Joline W J Beulens

^*Corresponding author for this work

Amsterdam UMC
Maastricht University
University of Amsterdam
Amsterdam University Medical Center
Department of Psychiatry
National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, Bilthoven, the Netherlands.
Utrecht University
University Medical Center Utrecht

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

Abstract

BACKGROUND: High noise exposure and temperatures may increase type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk by reducing sleep duration and increasing Body Mass Index (BMI). We studied associations between outdoor noise and nighttime temperature exposure with incident T2D in the Dutch population and assessed mediation by sleep duration and BMI.

METHODS: Six cohorts of the Geoscience and Health Cohort Consortium were linked to environmental exposures based on individuals' postal codes. Noise exposure (road, rail, air traffic) was measured as day-evening-night average decibel levels (dB). High temperature exposure was defined by days with minimum (i.e., nighttime) temperatures above 10°C during summer (June-September). We used logistic regression and sequential causal mediation models. Effect modification by sex, neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) and urbanization was tested. Models were adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, educational level, follow-up time, urbanization level, nSES, and air pollution. Cohort-specific results were meta-analyzed.

RESULTS: Among 23,496 participants (mean age range 41.6 (+/-13.2) to 68.9 (+/-7.9) years), 724 developed T2D over follow-up periods ranging from 3.0 years [2.0-4.0] to 9.1 years [8.9-9.4]. Noise exposure across cohorts ranged from 53.1 [50.1-57.7] to 57.5 (+/-4.7) dB, while high nighttime temperature exposure ranged from 88 [87.0-90.0] to 106 [91.0-108.0] days. Meta-analyses showed no associations between noise (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02) or temperature exposure and incident T2D (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02). No evidence for mediation by sleep duration and BMI was observed.

CONCLUSION: Outdoor noise and elevated nighttime temperatures were not associated with incident T2D, nor mediated by sleep duration and BMI in this study.

Original language	English
Article number	124255
Journal	Environmental Research
Volume	298
Early online date	10 Mar 2026
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255
Publication status	Published - 1 Jun 2026

Bibliographical note

Publisher Copyright:
© 2026 The Authors

Funding

This work was supported by EXPOSOME-NL which is funded through the Gravitation program of the Dutch Ministry of Education, Culture, and Science and the Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO grant number 024.004.017) and EXPANSE which received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under grant agreement number 874627.

Funders	Funder number
Ministerie van onderwijs, cultuur en wetenschap
EXPOSOME-NL
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek	024.004.017
Horizon 2020 Framework Programme	874627

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

SDG 3 Good Health and Well-being

Keywords

Exposome
Noise
Physicochemical environment
Temperature
Type 2 diabetes

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The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysisFinal published version, 1.08 MBLicence: CC BY

Cite this

Siddiqui, N. Z., Mackenbach, J. D., Pinho, M. G. M., Bosma, H., Galenkamp, H., Huisman, M., Koster, A., Lakerveld, J., Penninx, B. W. J. H., Picavet, H. S. J., Schram, M. T., Timmermans, E. J., Monique Verschuren, W., Wagtendonk, A., Rutters, F., & Beulens, J. W. J. (2026). The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis. Environmental Research, 298, Article 124255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255

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title = "The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis",

abstract = "BACKGROUND: High noise exposure and temperatures may increase type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk by reducing sleep duration and increasing Body Mass Index (BMI). We studied associations between outdoor noise and nighttime temperature exposure with incident T2D in the Dutch population and assessed mediation by sleep duration and BMI.METHODS: Six cohorts of the Geoscience and Health Cohort Consortium were linked to environmental exposures based on individuals' postal codes. Noise exposure (road, rail, air traffic) was measured as day-evening-night average decibel levels (dB). High temperature exposure was defined by days with minimum (i.e., nighttime) temperatures above 10°C during summer (June-September). We used logistic regression and sequential causal mediation models. Effect modification by sex, neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) and urbanization was tested. Models were adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, educational level, follow-up time, urbanization level, nSES, and air pollution. Cohort-specific results were meta-analyzed.RESULTS: Among 23,496 participants (mean age range 41.6 (+/-13.2) to 68.9 (+/-7.9) years), 724 developed T2D over follow-up periods ranging from 3.0 years [2.0-4.0] to 9.1 years [8.9-9.4]. Noise exposure across cohorts ranged from 53.1 [50.1-57.7] to 57.5 (+/-4.7) dB, while high nighttime temperature exposure ranged from 88 [87.0-90.0] to 106 [91.0-108.0] days. Meta-analyses showed no associations between noise (OR: 1.00, 95\% CI: 0.97-1.02) or temperature exposure and incident T2D (OR: 0.99, 95\% CI: 0.97-1.02). No evidence for mediation by sleep duration and BMI was observed.CONCLUSION: Outdoor noise and elevated nighttime temperatures were not associated with incident T2D, nor mediated by sleep duration and BMI in this study.",

keywords = "Exposome, Noise, Physicochemical environment, Temperature, Type 2 diabetes",

author = "Siddiqui, \{Noreen Z\} and Mackenbach, \{Joreintje D\} and Pinho, \{Maria G M\} and Hans Bosma and Henrike Galenkamp and Martijn Huisman and Annemarie Koster and Jeroen Lakerveld and Penninx, \{Brenda W J H\} and Picavet, \{H Susan J\} and Schram, \{Miranda T\} and Timmermans, \{Erik J\} and \{Monique Verschuren\}, W and Alfred Wagtendonk and Femke Rutters and Beulens, \{Joline W J\}",

note = "Publisher Copyright: {\textcopyright} 2026 The Authors",

year = "2026",

month = jun,

day = "1",

doi = "10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255",

language = "English",

volume = "298",

journal = "Environmental Research",

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Siddiqui, NZ, Mackenbach, JD, Pinho, MGM, Bosma, H, Galenkamp, H, Huisman, M, Koster, A, Lakerveld, J, Penninx, BWJH, Picavet, HSJ, Schram, MT, Timmermans, EJ, Monique Verschuren, W, Wagtendonk, A, Rutters, F & Beulens, JWJ 2026, 'The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis', Environmental Research, vol. 298, 124255. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255

The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis. / Siddiqui, Noreen Z; Mackenbach, Joreintje D; Pinho, Maria G M et al.
In: Environmental Research, Vol. 298, 124255, 01.06.2026.

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

TY - JOUR

T1 - The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index

T2 - A multi-cohort analysis

AU - Siddiqui, Noreen Z

AU - Mackenbach, Joreintje D

AU - Pinho, Maria G M

AU - Bosma, Hans

AU - Galenkamp, Henrike

AU - Huisman, Martijn

AU - Koster, Annemarie

AU - Lakerveld, Jeroen

AU - Penninx, Brenda W J H

AU - Picavet, H Susan J

AU - Schram, Miranda T

AU - Timmermans, Erik J

AU - Monique Verschuren, W

AU - Wagtendonk, Alfred

AU - Rutters, Femke

AU - Beulens, Joline W J

PY - 2026/6/1

Y1 - 2026/6/1

N2 - BACKGROUND: High noise exposure and temperatures may increase type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk by reducing sleep duration and increasing Body Mass Index (BMI). We studied associations between outdoor noise and nighttime temperature exposure with incident T2D in the Dutch population and assessed mediation by sleep duration and BMI.METHODS: Six cohorts of the Geoscience and Health Cohort Consortium were linked to environmental exposures based on individuals' postal codes. Noise exposure (road, rail, air traffic) was measured as day-evening-night average decibel levels (dB). High temperature exposure was defined by days with minimum (i.e., nighttime) temperatures above 10°C during summer (June-September). We used logistic regression and sequential causal mediation models. Effect modification by sex, neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) and urbanization was tested. Models were adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, educational level, follow-up time, urbanization level, nSES, and air pollution. Cohort-specific results were meta-analyzed.RESULTS: Among 23,496 participants (mean age range 41.6 (+/-13.2) to 68.9 (+/-7.9) years), 724 developed T2D over follow-up periods ranging from 3.0 years [2.0-4.0] to 9.1 years [8.9-9.4]. Noise exposure across cohorts ranged from 53.1 [50.1-57.7] to 57.5 (+/-4.7) dB, while high nighttime temperature exposure ranged from 88 [87.0-90.0] to 106 [91.0-108.0] days. Meta-analyses showed no associations between noise (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02) or temperature exposure and incident T2D (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02). No evidence for mediation by sleep duration and BMI was observed.CONCLUSION: Outdoor noise and elevated nighttime temperatures were not associated with incident T2D, nor mediated by sleep duration and BMI in this study.

AB - BACKGROUND: High noise exposure and temperatures may increase type 2 diabetes (T2D) risk by reducing sleep duration and increasing Body Mass Index (BMI). We studied associations between outdoor noise and nighttime temperature exposure with incident T2D in the Dutch population and assessed mediation by sleep duration and BMI.METHODS: Six cohorts of the Geoscience and Health Cohort Consortium were linked to environmental exposures based on individuals' postal codes. Noise exposure (road, rail, air traffic) was measured as day-evening-night average decibel levels (dB). High temperature exposure was defined by days with minimum (i.e., nighttime) temperatures above 10°C during summer (June-September). We used logistic regression and sequential causal mediation models. Effect modification by sex, neighborhood socioeconomic status (nSES) and urbanization was tested. Models were adjusted for sex, age, ethnicity, educational level, follow-up time, urbanization level, nSES, and air pollution. Cohort-specific results were meta-analyzed.RESULTS: Among 23,496 participants (mean age range 41.6 (+/-13.2) to 68.9 (+/-7.9) years), 724 developed T2D over follow-up periods ranging from 3.0 years [2.0-4.0] to 9.1 years [8.9-9.4]. Noise exposure across cohorts ranged from 53.1 [50.1-57.7] to 57.5 (+/-4.7) dB, while high nighttime temperature exposure ranged from 88 [87.0-90.0] to 106 [91.0-108.0] days. Meta-analyses showed no associations between noise (OR: 1.00, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02) or temperature exposure and incident T2D (OR: 0.99, 95% CI: 0.97-1.02). No evidence for mediation by sleep duration and BMI was observed.CONCLUSION: Outdoor noise and elevated nighttime temperatures were not associated with incident T2D, nor mediated by sleep duration and BMI in this study.

KW - Exposome

KW - Noise

KW - Physicochemical environment

KW - Temperature

KW - Type 2 diabetes

UR - https://www.scopus.com/pages/publications/105033228822

U2 - 10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255

DO - 10.1016/j.envres.2026.124255

M3 - Article

C2 - 41819206

SN - 0013-9351

VL - 298

JO - Environmental Research

JF - Environmental Research

M1 - 124255

ER -

The association between outdoor noise and temperature exposure with incident type 2 diabetes, and mediation by sleep and body mass index: A multi-cohort analysis

Abstract

Bibliographical note

Funding

UN SDGs

Keywords

Access to Document

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