Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Surface Mass Balance of Debris-Covered Glacier Tongues

Philip Kraaijenbrink; Walter Immerzeel

doi:10.1029/2024JF007935

Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Surface Mass Balance of Debris-Covered Glacier Tongues

Philip Kraaijenbrink^*, Walter Immerzeel

^*Corresponding author for this work

Hydrologie

Research output: Contribution to journal › Article › Academic › peer-review

Abstract

Himalayan glaciers often have a supraglacial debris layer that causes spatial heterogeneity in surface changes and mostly reduces melt. Despite this, debris-covered glaciers lose mass at similar rates to debris-free glaciers. Understanding related processes is crucial for assessing impacts on water resources and hazards. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variability of surface changes in debris-covered glaciers by analyzing (parts of) two distinctly different Himalayan glaciers, Lirung Glacier and Langtang Glacier, over 2013–2018 using high-resolution uncrewed aerial system data. Derived multi-annual surface mass balances across the debris-covered tongues had reduced spatial variability compared to (sub) annual surface changes, likely due to topographic feedbacks in surface processes, while at supraglacial ice cliffs both melt amplification and dampening was observed, with an overall net negative effect on mass balance. Increased melting due to higher cliff abundance contributed to the equal surface mass balances between the tongues, despite differences in elevation and air temperatures. Additionally, cliff abundance increased sensitivity to temperature fluctuations, leading to greater surface mass balance variability. In response to the Gorkha Earthquake of April 2015, Langtang Glacier exhibited higher sensitivity of the ice influx, suggesting it has potential sensitivity to climate change. In contrast to Langtang Glacier, which showed no retreat, Lirung Glacier experienced an anomalously fast retreat of a terminal ice cliff, substantially impacting its mass balance. The spatiotemporal response revealed by this study reiterates the significant role of ice cliffs in debris-covered glacier surface mass balance, emphasizing the need for their accurate representation in impact studies.

Original language	English
Article number	e2024JF007935
Pages (from-to)	1-25
Journal	Journal of Geophysical Research: Earth Surface
Volume	130
Issue number	3
DOIs	https://doi.org/10.1029/2024JF007935
Publication status	Published - 15 Mar 2025

Bibliographical note

Publisher Copyright:
© 2025. The Author(s).

Funding

This research was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant XDA20100300), Climate\u2010KIC programme from the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT), The UK Department for International Development (Grant PO40082504), the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant 676819), and the Dutch Research Council (NWO) under the Innovational Research Incentives Scheme Vidi (Grant 016.181.308) and Talent Programme Veni (Grant VI.Veni.222.019). This study was additionally supported by core funds of The International Centre of Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) contributed by the governments of Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the authors and they are not necessarily attributable to their organizations. The Pl\u00E9iades DEM used in this study was provided by the Pl\u00E9iades Glacier Observatory initiative of the French Space Agency (CNES) and Laboratoire d\u2019Etudes en G\u00E9ophysique et Oc\u00E9anographie Spatiales (LEGOS). We sincerely would like to thank the many fellow researchers, team members, support staff, students, and others who supported us during one or more of the UAS surveys, provided required equipment, or were otherwise involved. We also thank Kathmandu University, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Nepal), the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal, and the Nepal Army for facilitation of our UAS research permits in Langtang National Park. This research was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (Grant XDA20100300), Climate-KIC programme from the European Institute of Innovation and Technology (EIT), The UK Department for International Development (Grant PO40082504), the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme (Grant 676819), and the Dutch Research Council (NWO) under the Innovational Research Incentives Scheme Vidi (Grant 016.181.308) and Talent Programme Veni (Grant VI.Veni.222.019). This study was additionally supported by core funds of The International Centre of Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) contributed by the governments of Afghanistan, Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom. The views and interpretations in this publication are those of the authors and they are not necessarily attributable to their organizations. The Pl\u00E9iades DEM used in this study was provided by the Pl\u00E9iades Glacier Observatory initiative of the French Space Agency (CNES) and Laboratoire d\u2019Etudes en G\u00E9ophysique et Oc\u00E9anographie Spatiales (LEGOS). We sincerely would like to thank the many fellow researchers, team members, support staff, students, and others who supported us during one or more of the UAS surveys, provided required equipment, or were otherwise involved. We also thank Kathmandu University, the Department of National Parks and Wildlife Conservation (Nepal), the Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal, and the Nepal Army for facilitation of our UAS research permits in Langtang National Park.

Funders	Funder number
Innovational Research Incentives Scheme Vidi
Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation
French Space Agency
Centre National d’Etudes Spatiales
European Institute of Innovation and Technology
Laboratoire d’Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales
Kathmandu University
Civil Aviation Authority of Nepal
European Research Council
International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development
Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek	016.181.308, VI.Veni.222.019
Chinese Academy of Sciences	XDA20100300
Department for International Development, UK Government	PO40082504
Horizon 2020	676819

Keywords

Himalaya
Nepal
debris-covered glaciers
drones
mass balance
remote sensing

UN SDGs

This output contributes to the following UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)

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JGR Earth Surface - 2025 - Kraaijenbrink - Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Surface Mass Balance of Debris‐CoveredFinal published version, 4.86 MBLicence: CC BY

Cite this

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abstract = "Himalayan glaciers often have a supraglacial debris layer that causes spatial heterogeneity in surface changes and mostly reduces melt. Despite this, debris-covered glaciers lose mass at similar rates to debris-free glaciers. Understanding related processes is crucial for assessing impacts on water resources and hazards. This study assesses the spatiotemporal variability of surface changes in debris-covered glaciers by analyzing (parts of) two distinctly different Himalayan glaciers, Lirung Glacier and Langtang Glacier, over 2013–2018 using high-resolution uncrewed aerial system data. Derived multi-annual surface mass balances across the debris-covered tongues had reduced spatial variability compared to (sub) annual surface changes, likely due to topographic feedbacks in surface processes, while at supraglacial ice cliffs both melt amplification and dampening was observed, with an overall net negative effect on mass balance. Increased melting due to higher cliff abundance contributed to the equal surface mass balances between the tongues, despite differences in elevation and air temperatures. Additionally, cliff abundance increased sensitivity to temperature fluctuations, leading to greater surface mass balance variability. In response to the Gorkha Earthquake of April 2015, Langtang Glacier exhibited higher sensitivity of the ice influx, suggesting it has potential sensitivity to climate change. In contrast to Langtang Glacier, which showed no retreat, Lirung Glacier experienced an anomalously fast retreat of a terminal ice cliff, substantially impacting its mass balance. The spatiotemporal response revealed by this study reiterates the significant role of ice cliffs in debris-covered glacier surface mass balance, emphasizing the need for their accurate representation in impact studies.",

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Spatial and Temporal Variability of the Surface Mass Balance of Debris-Covered Glacier Tongues

Abstract

Bibliographical note

Funding

Keywords

UN SDGs

Access to Document

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