Sources and long-Term variability of carbon monoxide at Mount Kenya and in Nairobi

Carbon monoxide (CO) concentrations in the troposphere are decreasing globally, with Africa as an exception. Yet, the region is understudied, with a deficit of ground-based observations and highly uncertain CO emission inventories. This paper reports multiyear observational CO data from the Mt. Kenya Global Atmosphere Watch (GAW) station, as well as summertime CO isotope observations from both Mt. Kenya and Nairobi, Kenya. The CO variability at Mt. Kenya is characterized by slightly increased concentrations during dry periods and a strong influence of short-Term pollution events. While some data gaps and differences in instrumentation complicate decadal-scale trend analysis, a small long-Term increase is resolved. High-pollution events are consistent with isotopic signal from downwind savanna fires. The isotope fingerprint of CO in Nairobi indicates an overwhelming dominance (near 100%) of primary emissions from fossil fuel combustion with implications for air pollution policy. In contrast, the isotope signature of CO intercepted at the large-footprint Mt. Kenya region suggests that at least 70% is primary sourced, with a predominance likely from savanna fires in Africa. Taken together, this study provides quantitative constraints of primary vs. secondary CO in the eastern Africa region and in urban Nairobi, with implications for satellite-based emission inventories as well as for chemical transport and climate modeling.