Reviewing the sociotechnical dynamics of carbon removal

In recent years, carbon removal and associated net-zero energy technologies have emerged as serious options for policymakers and scientists to consider when trying to address climate change. How, where, and when to use these options effectively are, how- ever, polemic, and research examining the social or justice dimen- sions of deployment—actual or prospective—remains uncommon. This review provides an interdisciplinary and holistic perspective of the sociotechnical dynamics of carbon-removal options. It em- ploys a sociotechnical approach that reveals the different epistemic, economic, technical, social, political, and environmental elements necessary for a net-zero energy transition. In this review, we first summarize seven broad classes of carbon removal—afforestation and reforestation, soil carbon sequestration, marine biomass and blue carbon, direct air capture with carbon storage, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage, enhanced weathering, and bio- char. The review then explores four critical sociotechnical areas in greater depth: modeling and assessment, social acceptance, innova- tion and scaling, and policy and governance. We conclude with im- plications for policy and research.