How can we adapt to geological scarcity of antimony? Investigation of antimony's substitutability and of other measures to achieve a sustainable use

Abstract Antimony is an element that is applied in many useful applications for mankind. However, antimony resources are very scarce, when comparing the current extraction rates with the availability of antimony containing ores. From an inter-temporal sustainability perspective, current generations should not deprive future generations from extractable ores. The extraction rate of a mineral resource is defined sustainable, if such a rate can be sustained for 1000 years assuming the same consumption per capita in all countries of the world. To achieve a sustainable extraction of antimony, it is necessary to reduce the current extraction with 96% compared to the primary antimony extraction in 2010. We have investigated whether such an ambitious extraction reduction goal would be technically feasible, without losing any of the current services that are provided by antimony. Reduction of the use of primary antimony can be achieved through (a combination of) substitution, improved material efficiency and recycling. Because the potential of material efficiency and recycling are limited in the case of antimony, the focus is on substitution of antimony in its applications. The major application of antimony (more than 50%) is in flame retardants. It appears that about 95% of antimony in flame retardants can be replaced by other components or systems. Overall, the substitutability of antimony in all its applications is estimated at around 90%. The required additional extraction reduction needs to be realized by improved material efficiency and further recycling, especially from the remaining antimony containing flame retardants and from lead-alloys.