Gaze behavior in face-to-face interaction: A cross-cultural investigation between Japan and The Netherlands

Previous research suggests a pattern of gaze avoidance in East Asian compared with Western cultures. Yet, recent eye-tracking studies of face-to-face conversation do not corroborate this. More generally, differences in nonverbal communication and analytic versus holistic strategies have been described between East Asian and Western cultures. Using wearable eye-tracking technology and an automated gaze-processing pipeline, we investigated cross-cultural differences in gaze behavior during unstructured conversation and collaborative interactions from an information-gathering and information-signaling perspective. We compared Japanese and Dutch individuals on gaze to faces, gaze–gesture coupling, and gaze–action coupling. Japanese participants consistently looked less at faces than their Dutch counterparts in all interactive scenarios. Additionally, Japanese individuals displayed fewer pointing gestures and kept their hands under the table longer. Although gaze coupling with manual actions and pointing gestures was similar across both groups, longer-term gaze–action patterns varied, reflecting potential differences in cultural strategies (holistic vs. analytic) and error orientation styles. These findings suggest that while visuomotor coordination is consistent, extended patterns of gaze in the context of collaboration diverge based on cultural context. Our study underscores the need to assess gaze behavior within the interaction rather than in isolation, integrating visuomotor behavior, nonverbal communication and cultural context. Additionally, our findings may aid in developing individually- and culturally-sensitive anthropomorphic virtual avatars and social robots.