Exposure to ultrafine and fine particles and noise during cycling and driving in 11 Dutch cities

Recent studies have suggested that exposures during traffic participation may be associated with adverse health effects. Traffic participation involves relatively short but high exposures. Potentially relevant exposures include ultrafine particles, fine particles (PM2.5) and noise. Simultaneously, detailed real time exposure of particle number concentration (PNC), PM2.5 and noise has been measured while driving and cycling 12 predefined routes of approximately 10–20 min duration. Sampling took place in eleven medium-sized Dutch cities on eleven weekdays in August till October 2006. To investigate variability in cyclists exposure, we systematically collected information on meteorology, GPS coordinates, type of road, traffic intensity, passing vehicles and mopeds while cycling. The overall mean PNC of car drivers was 5% higher than the mean PNC of cyclists. The overall mean concentration of PM2.5 in the car was 11% higher than during cycling. Slightly higher 1-min peak concentrations were measured in the car (PNC 14%; PM2.5 29% for 95-percentiles). Shorter duration peaks of PNC were higher during cycling (43% for 99-percentile of 1-s averages). Peaks in PNC typically last for less than 10 s. A large variability of exposure was found within and between routes. Factors that significantly predicted PNC variability during cycling were: passing vehicles (mopeds, cars), waiting for traffic lights, passing different types of (large) intersections and bicycle lanes and bike paths close to motorized traffic. No relation was found between PM2.5 and those predictor variables. The correlation between PNC and noise was moderate (median 0.34). PM2.5 had very low correlations with PNC and noise. PNC and PM2.5 exposure of car drivers was slightly higher than that of cyclists. PNC was largely uncorrelated with PM2.5 and reflected local traffic variables more than PM2.5. Different factors were associated with high PNC and high noise exposures.