TY - JOUR
T1 - Environmental and personal determinants of the uptake of disinfection by-products during swimming
AU - Font-Ribera, Laia
AU - Kogevinas, Manolis
AU - Schmalz, Christina
AU - Zwiener, Christian
AU - Marco, Esther
AU - Grimalt, Joan O
AU - Liu, Jiaqi
AU - Zhang, Xiangru
AU - Mitch, William
AU - Critelli, Rossana
AU - Naccarati, Alessio
AU - Heederik, Dick
AU - Spithoven, Jack
AU - Arjona, Lourdes
AU - de Bont, Jeroen
AU - Gracia-Lavedan, Esther
AU - Villanueva, Cristina M
N1 - Copyright © 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
PY - 2016/8
Y1 - 2016/8
N2 - BACKGROUND: Trihalomethanes (THMs) in exhaled breath and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) in urine are internal dose biomarkers of exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pools.OBJECTIVE: We assessed how these biomarkers reflect the levels of a battery of DBPs in pool water and trichloramine in air, and evaluated personal determinants.METHODS: A total of 116 adults swam during 40min in a chlorinated indoor pool. We measured chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform in exhaled breath and TCAA in urine before and after swimming, trichloramine in air and several DBPs in water. Personal determinants included sex, age, body mass index (BMI), distance swum, energy expenditure, heart rate and 12 polymorphisms in GSTT1, GSTZ1 and CYP2E1 genes.RESULTS: Median level of exhaled total THMs and creatinine adjusted urine TCAA increased from 0.5 to 14.4µg/m(3) and from 2.5 to 5.8µmol/mol after swimming, respectively. The increase in exhaled brominated THMs was correlated with brominated THMs, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, chloramines, total organic carbon and total organic halogen in water and trichloramine in air. Such correlations were not detected for exhaled chloroform, total THMs or urine TCAA. Exhaled THM increased more in men, urine TCAA increased more in women, and both were affected by exercise intensity. Genetic variants were associated with differential increases in exposure biomarkers.CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that, although affected by sex, physical activity and polymorphisms in key metabolizing enzymes, brominated THMs in exhaled breath could be used as a non-invasive DBP exposure biomarker in swimming pools with bromide-containing source waters. This warrants confirmation with new studies.
AB - BACKGROUND: Trihalomethanes (THMs) in exhaled breath and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) in urine are internal dose biomarkers of exposure to disinfection by-products (DBPs) in swimming pools.OBJECTIVE: We assessed how these biomarkers reflect the levels of a battery of DBPs in pool water and trichloramine in air, and evaluated personal determinants.METHODS: A total of 116 adults swam during 40min in a chlorinated indoor pool. We measured chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform in exhaled breath and TCAA in urine before and after swimming, trichloramine in air and several DBPs in water. Personal determinants included sex, age, body mass index (BMI), distance swum, energy expenditure, heart rate and 12 polymorphisms in GSTT1, GSTZ1 and CYP2E1 genes.RESULTS: Median level of exhaled total THMs and creatinine adjusted urine TCAA increased from 0.5 to 14.4µg/m(3) and from 2.5 to 5.8µmol/mol after swimming, respectively. The increase in exhaled brominated THMs was correlated with brominated THMs, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, chloramines, total organic carbon and total organic halogen in water and trichloramine in air. Such correlations were not detected for exhaled chloroform, total THMs or urine TCAA. Exhaled THM increased more in men, urine TCAA increased more in women, and both were affected by exercise intensity. Genetic variants were associated with differential increases in exposure biomarkers.CONCLUSION: Our findings suggest that, although affected by sex, physical activity and polymorphisms in key metabolizing enzymes, brominated THMs in exhaled breath could be used as a non-invasive DBP exposure biomarker in swimming pools with bromide-containing source waters. This warrants confirmation with new studies.
KW - Biomarkers
KW - Disinfection by-products
KW - DBPs
KW - Haloacetic acids
KW - Internal dose
KW - Swimming pools
KW - Trihalomethanes
KW - THMs
U2 - 10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.013
DO - 10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.013
M3 - Article
C2 - 27214136
SN - 0013-9351
VL - 149
SP - 206
EP - 215
JO - Environmental Research
JF - Environmental Research
ER -