Analysis of photon-driven solar-to-hydrogen production methods in the Netherlands

Hydrogen is deemed necessary for the realization of a sustainable society, especially when renewable energy is used to generate hydrogen. As most of the photon-driven hydrogen production methods are not commercially available yet, this study has investigated the techno-economic and overall performance of four different solar-to-hydrogen methods and photovoltaics-based electrolysis methods in the Netherlands. It was found that the photovoltaics-based electrolysis is the cheapest option with production cost of 9.31 $/kgH₂. Production cost based on photo-catalytic water splitting, direct bio-photolysis, and photoelectrochemical water splitting are found to be 18.32 $/kgH₂, 18.45 $/kgH₂, and 18.98 $/kgH₂, respectively. These costs are expected to drop significantly in the future. Direct bio-photolysis (potential cost of 3.10 $/kgH₂) and photo-catalytic water splitting (3.12 $/kgH₂) may become cheaper than photovoltaics-based electrolysis. Based on preferences of three fictional technology investors, i.e. a short-term, a green and a visionary investor, the overall performance of these methods are determined. Photovoltaics-based electrolysis is the most ideal option, with photoelectrochemical water splitting a complementary option. While photovoltaics-based electrolysis has an advantage on the short-term because it is a non-integrated energy system, on the long-term this might lead to relatively higher cost and performance limitations. Photochemical water splitting are integrated energy systems and have an advantage on the long-term because they need a relatively low theoretical overpotential and benefit from increasing temperatures. Both methods show performance improvements by the use of quantum dots. Bio-photolysis can be self-sustaining and can use wastewater to produce hydrogen but sudden temperature changes could lead to performance decrease.